COVID-19: Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, and Treatment
DOI:
10.29303/jbt.v23i4.5727Published:
2023-10-16Downloads
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a disease of the respiratory system that spreads rapidly throughout the world with significant mortality and morbidity rate. This literature review aims to provide related information, so as to find out how SARS-CoV-2 is transmitted, the latest control, prevention, and treatment strategies. We searched from online databases and used review articles, research, guidelines from professional organizations, such as Ministry of Health Republic of Indonesia. SARS-CoV-2 spreads rapidly through droplets and attacks the respiratory system by binding to the ACE-2 receptor. This virus spreads from symptomatic or asymptomatic people. Diagnostic accuracy can be improved by combining clinical evidence with results from CT-scans and RT-PCR. Management for COVID-19 patients is carried out based on severity. Understanding pathogenesis can help determine the next step in treatment and prevention of COVID-19.
Keywords:
COVID-19, diagnosis, pathogenesis, treatment.References
Acosta, R. A. H., & Garrigos, Z. E. (2022). COVID-19 Pathogenesis and Clinical Manifestations. Infectious Disease Clinics of North America, 36(January), 2. DOI: https://doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.idc.2022.01.003
Binny, R. N., Priest, P., French, N. P., Parry, M., Lustig, A., Hendy, S. C., Maclaren, O. J., Ridings, K. M., Steyn, N., Vattiato, G., & Plank, M. J. (2022). Sensitivity of Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction Tests for Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Through Time. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 227(1), 9–17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiac317
Chen, H., Liu, W., Wang, Y., Liu, D., Zhao, L., & Yu, J. (2021). SARS-CoV-2 activates lung epithelial cell proinflammatory signaling and leads to immune dysregulation in COVID-19 patients. EBioMedicine, 70, 103500. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ebiom.2021.103500
da Rosa Mesquita, R., Francelino Silva Junior, L. C., Santos Santana, F. M., Farias de Oliveira, T., Campos Alcântara, R., Monteiro Arnozo, G., Rodrigues da Silva Filho, E., Galdino dos Santos, A. G., Oliveira da Cunha, E. J., Salgueiro de Aquino, S. H., & Freire de Souza, C. D. (2021). Clinical manifestations of COVID-19 in the general population: systematic review. Wiener Klinische Wochenschrift, 133(7–8), 377–382. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00508-020-01760-4
Diamond, M. S., & Kanneganti, T. D. (2022). Innate immunity: the first line of defense against SARS-CoV-2. Nature Immunology, 23(2), 165–176. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41590-021-01091-0
Garg, S., Kim, L., Whitaker, M., O’Halloran, A., Cummings, C., Holstein, R., Prill, M., Chai, S., Kirley, P., Alden, N., & Kawasaki, B. (2020). Hospitalization Rates and Characteristics of Patients Hospitalized with Laboratory-Confirmed Coronavirus Disease 2019. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, US Department of Health and Human Services/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 69(15), 458–464.
Ge, H., Wang, X., Yuan, X., Xiao, G., Wang, C., Deng, T., Yuan, Q., & Xiao, X. (2020). The epidemiology and clinical information about COVID-19. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 39(6), 1011–1019. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10096-020-03874-z
Jin, Y., Yang, H., Ji, W., Wu, W., Chen, S., Zhang, W., & Duan, G. (2020). Virology, epidemiology, pathogenesis, and control of covid-19. Viruses, 12(4), 1–17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/v12040372
Karoui, K. El, & An S. De Vriese. (2021). COVID-19 in dialysis clinical impact, immune response, prevention, and treatment. Kidney International, 101(5), 883–894. DOI: https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kint.2022.01.022
Kementerian Kesehatan Republik Indonesia. (2020). Pedoman Pencegahan dan Pengendalian COVID-19.
Li, C., He, Q., Qian, H., & Liu, J. (2021). Overview of the pathogenesis of COVID 19 (Review). Experimental and Therapeutic Medicine, 22(3), 1–10. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3892/etm.2021.10444
Li, J., Huang, D. Q., Zou, B., Hongli, Y., Hui, W. Z., Rui, F., Yee, N. T. S., Liu, C., Nerurkar, S. N., Kai, J. C. Y., Teng, M. L. P., Li, X., Zeng, H., Borghi, J. A., Henry, L., Cheung, R., & Nguyen, M. H. (2021). Epidemiology of COVID‐19: A systematic review and meta‐analysis of clinical characteristics, risk factors, and outcomes. Journal of Medical Virology, 93(3), 1449–1458. DOI: https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/jmv.26424
Lippi, G., Simundic, A. M., & Plebani, M. (2020). Potential preanalytical and analytical vulnerabilities in the laboratory diagnosis of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, 58(7), 1070–1076. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/cclm-2020-0285
Nadim, M. K., Forni, L. G., Mehta, R. L., Connor, M. J., Liu, K. D., Ostermann, M., Rimmelé, T., Zarbock, A., Bell, S., Bihorac, A., Cantaluppi, V., Hoste, E., Husain-Syed, F., Germain, M. J., Goldstein, S. L., Gupta, S., Joannidis, M., Kashani, K., Koyner, J. L., … Kellum, J. A. (2020). COVID-19-associated acute kidney injury: consensus report of the 25th Acute Disease Quality Initiative (ADQI) Workgroup. Nature Reviews Nephrology, 16(12), 747–764. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41581-020-00356-5
Pascarella, G., Strumia, A., Piliego, C., Bruno, F., & Costa, F. (2020). COVID‐19 diagnosis and management: a comprehensive review. Journal of Internal Medicine, 288(2), 192–206. DOI: https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.13091
Primorac, D., Vrdoljak, K., Brlek, P., Pavelić, E., Molnar, V., Matišić, V., Erceg Ivkošić, I., & Parčina, M. (2022). Adaptive Immune Responses and Immunity to SARS-CoV-2. Frontiers in Immunology, 13(May), 1–13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.848582
Rauf, A., Abu-Izneid, T., Olatunde, A., Khalil, A. A., Alhumaydhi, F. A., Tufail, T., Shariati, M. A., Rebezov, M., Almarhoon, Z. M., Mabkhot, Y. N., Alsayari, A., & Rengasamy, K. R. R. (2020). COVID-19 pandemic: Epidemiology, etiology, conventional and non-conventional therapies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(21), 1–32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17218155
Reusch, N., De Domenico, E., Bonaguro, L., Schulte-Schrepping, J., Baßler, K., Schultze, J. L., & Aschenbrenner, A. C. (2021). Neutrophils in COVID-19. Frontiers in Immunology, 12(March), 1–9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2021.652470
Robba, C., Battaglini, D., Pelosi, P., & Rocco, P. R. M. (2020). Multiple organ dysfunction in SARS-CoV-2: MODS-CoV-2. Expert Review of Respiratory Medicine, 14(9), 865–868. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17476348.2020.1778470
Ruenjaiman, V., Hirankarn, N., & Palaga, T. (2021). Innate immunity in COVID-19: Drivers of pathogenesis and potential therapeutic targets. Asian Pacific Journal of Allergy and Immunology, 39(2), 69–77. DOI: https://doi.org/10.12932/AP-130121-1037
Sette, A., & Crotty, S. (2021). Adaptive immunity to SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19. Cell, 184(4), 861–880. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2021.01.007
Sharma, A., Ahmad Farouk, I., & Lal, S. K. (2021). Covid-19: A review on the novel coronavirus disease evolution, transmission, detection, control and prevention. Viruses, 13(2), 1–25. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/v13020202
Sharma, A., Balda, S., Apreja, M., Kataria, K., & Capalash, N. (2021). COVID-19 Diagnosis: Current and Future Techniques. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules, 193(Pt B), 1835–1844. DOI: https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.11.016
Silva, M. J. A., Rodrigues, Y. C., Lima, K. V. B., & Lima, L. N. G. C. (2022). Innate immunity to SARS-CoV-2 infection: A review. Epidemiology and Infection, 150. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S095026882200125X
Singhal, T. (2020). Review on COVID19 disease so far. The Indian Journal of Pediatrics, 87(April), 281–286. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12098-020-03263-6
Sule, W. F., & Oluwayelu, D. O. (2020). Real-time RT-PCR for COVID-19 diagnosis: challenges and prospects. The Pan African Medical Journal, 35(Supp 2), 121. DOI: https://doi.org/10.11604/pamj.supp.2020.35.24258
Wen, W., Chen, C., Tang, J., Wang, C., Zhou, M., Cheng, Y., Zhou, X., Wu, Q., Zhang, X., Feng, Z., Wang, M., & Mao, Q. (2022). Efficacy and safety of three new oral antiviral treatment (molnupiravir, fluvoxamine and Paxlovid) for COVID-19：a meta-analysis. Annals of Medicine, 54(1), 516–523. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/07853890.2022.2034936
Zhou, X., & Ye, Q. (2021). Cellular Immune Response to COVID-19 and Potential Immune Modulators. Frontiers in Immunology, 12(April), 1–8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2021.646333
License
Copyright (c) 2023 Hasan Waliyurrahim, Rina Lestari
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Jurnal Biologi Tropis is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
The copyright of the received article shall be assigned to the author as the owner of the paper. The intended copyright includes the right to publish the article in various forms (including reprints). The journal maintains the publishing rights to the published articles.
Authors are permitted to disseminate published articles by sharing the link/DOI of the article at the journal. Authors are allowed to use their articles for any legal purposes deemed necessary without written permission from the journal with an acknowledgment of initial publication to this journal.
