Influence of Water Quality Parameters on Zooxanthellae Density in Reef-Building Corals from Pahawang Island, Lampung, Indonesia
DOI:
10.29303/jbt.v26i1.11529Published:
2026-04-09Downloads
Abstract
Despite the ecological and economic significance of coral reefs, quantitative data on how water quality parameters regulate zooxanthellae density in anthropogenically impacted tropical reefs remain limited. This study investigated the influence of water quality parameters on zooxanthellae density in branching corals at Pahawang Island, Lampung, Indonesia, across four stations representing different levels of human disturbance: dock area (Station 1), floating net cages area (Station 2), recreational area (Station 3), and a relatively pristine area (Station 4). Coral fragments were collected by SCUBA diving at 2–5 m depth, and zooxanthellae were extracted by homogenization followed by centrifugation, with cell density quantified using a hemocytometer under light microscopy. Physical and chemical water quality parameters were measured in situ using a CTD profiler, while nutrient concentrations were analyzed according to SNI protocols. Zooxanthellae density ranged from 16,822 to 22,227 cells/cm², indicating a healthy symbiotic status across all stations. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) identified dissolved oxygen (5.5–6.4 mg/L), depth (2.20–4.10 m), and water clarity (2.0–3.0 m) as the primary environmental drivers of zooxanthellae density variation, while temperature, pH, and salinity remained stable and within coral-suitable ranges. Hydrodynamic conditions and oxygen availability, rather than nutrient enrichment, appear to be the dominant regulators of zooxanthellae density at this site. These findings highlight the need for site-specific management strategies that prioritize maintaining dissolved oxygen levels and water circulation, and provide a scientific basis for developing zoning policies in coral ecotourism areas of Pahawang Island to ensure long-term reef ecosystem health.
Keywords:
Anthropogenic pressure Dissolved oxygen Reef-building corals Water quality parameters Zooxanthellae densityReferences
Akbar, A., Mayaguezz, H., & Susanti, O. (2025). Struktur komunitas karang dan ikan karang di perairan Pulau Pahawang. Marine Research, 14(2), 234–253. https://doi.org/10.14710/jmr.v14i2.46185
Baird, A. H., & Marshall, P. A. (2002). Mortality, growth and reproduction in scleractinian corals following bleaching on the Great Barrier Reef. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 237, 133–141. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps237133
Dewanti, L. P. H., Putra, I. D. N. N., & Faiqoh, E. (2018). Hubungan kelimpahan dan keanekaragaman fitoplankton dengan kelimpahan dan keanekaragaman zooplankton di Perairan Pulau Serangan, Bali. Journal of Marine and Aquatic Sciences, 4(2), 324–335. https://doi.org/10.24843/jmas.2018.v4.i02.324-335
Downs, C. A., Kramarsky-Winter, E., Segal, R., Fauth, J., Knutson, S., Bronstein, O., Ciner, F. R., Jeger, R., Lichtenfeld, Y., Woodley, C. M., Pennington, P., Cadenas, K., Kushmaro, A., & Loya, Y. (2016). Toxicopathological effects of the sunscreen UV filter, oxybenzone (benzophenone-3), on coral planulae and cultured primary cells and its environmental contamination in Hawaii and the US Virgin Islands. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 70(2), 265–288. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-015-0227-7
Fu, Y., Chen, X., Liu, Y., Li, Y., & Yu, K. (2024). The effects of atmospheric nitrogen deposition in coral-algal phase shifts on remote coral reefs. Frontiers in Marine Science, 11, 1214449. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1214449
Hughes, T. P., Barnes, M. L., Bellwood, D. R., Cinner, J. E., Cumming, G. S., Jackson, J. B. C., Kleypas, J., van de Leemput, I. A., Lough, J. M., Morrison, T. H., Palumbi, S. R., van Nes, E. H., & Scheffer, M. (2017). Coral reefs in the Anthropocene. Nature, 546(7656), 82–90. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature22901
Khuzma, N. L., Suryanto, A., & Purnomo, P. W. (2016). Hubungan kandungan nitrat dengan densitas zooxanthellae pada beberapa jenis karang di reef flat Pulau Pari Kepulauan Seribu Jakarta. Management of Aquatic Resources Journal (MAQUARES), 5(4), 293–301. https://doi.org/10.14710/marj.v5i4.14423
Lakastri, L., Purnomo, P. W., & Muskananfola, M. R. (2018). Pengaruh kedalaman terhadap produktivitas primer dan densitas zooxanthellae pada karang dominan di Pulau Cemara Kecil, Karimunjawa. Management of Aquatic Resources Journal (MAQUARES), 7(4), 440–446. https://doi.org/10.14710/marj.v7i4.22667
LaJeunesse, T. C., Parkinson, J. E., Gabrielson, P. W., Jeong, H. J., Reimer, J. D., Voolstra, C. R., & Santos, S. R. (2018). Systematic revision of Symbiodiniaceae highlights the antiquity and diversity of coral endosymbionts. Current Biology, 28(16), 2570–2580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.07.008
Mise, T., & Hidaka, M. (2003). Degradation of zooxanthellae in the coral Acropora nasuta during bleaching. Galaxea: Journal of Coral Reef Studies, 5(1), 33–39. https://doi.org/10.3755/jcrs.2003.33
Nangammada, S., & Rajan, R. (2024). Insights into zooxanthellae densities in corals Porites lutea and Pocillopora meandrina in Lakshadweep atolls. Regional Studies in Marine Science, 71, 103417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rsma.2024.103417
Neely, K. L., Nowicki, R. J., Dobler, M. A., Chaparro, A. A., Miller, S. M., & Toth, K. A. (2024). Too hot to handle? the impact of the 2023 marine heatwave on Florida Keys coral. Frontiers in Marine Science, 11, 1489273. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1489273
Novriadi, Darmawan, A., Maretta, G., Prasetyo, B. A., Nurhayu, W., Gurning, A. R., Afrizal, M., & Malik, M. A. (2024). Life form identification of coral reef and genera in Pahawang Island to support ecosystem rehabilitation. Advances in Biological Sciences Research, 39, 113–121. https://doi.org/10.2991/absr.k.240808.015
Panalaran, S., & Pamungkas, R. J. (2024). Analisis kesesuaian wisata di Pulau Pahawang, Kabupaten Pesawaran berdasarkan parameter oseanografi. Kelautan Tropis, 27(2), 269–276. https://doi.org/10.14710/jkt.v27i2.22438
Patty, S. I., & Akbar, N. (2020). Kondisi suhu, salinitas, pH dan oksigen terlarut di perairan terumbu karang Ternate, Tidore dan sekitarnya. Jurnal Ilmu Kelautan Kepulauan, 3(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.33387/jikk.v1i2.891
Rakhmawati, I., Maulina, D., & Lengkana, D. (2022). Identification of coral reef cover and invertebrate diversity in Pahawang Island Lampung Indonesia. Biological Environment and Pollution, 2(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.31763/bioenvipo.v2i1.561
Republik Indonesia. (2004). Keputusan Menteri Negara Lingkungan Hidup Nomor 51 Tahun 2004 tentang baku mutu air laut. Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup.
Republik Indonesia. (2021). Peraturan Pemerintah Nomor 22 Tahun 2021 tentang penyelenggaraan perlindungan dan pengelolaan lingkungan hidup, Lampiran VIII: Baku mutu air laut. Sekretariat Negara.
Rinkevich, B. (2014). Rebuilding coral reefs: Does active reef restoration lead to sustainable reefs? Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 7, 28–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2013.11.018
Sheppard, C. R. C., Davy, S. K., Pilling, G. M., & Graham, N. A. J. (2018). The biology of coral reefs (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198787341.001.0001
Suggett, D. J., Smith, D. J., Bindley, K., & Warner, M. E. (2021). Coral photophysiology and photoacclimation: Linking symbiont state to reef vitality. Annual Review of Marine Science, 13, 371–400. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-012120-035502
Torres, A. F., Valino, D. A. M., & Ravago-Gotanco, R. (2021). Zooxanthellae diversity and coral-symbiont associations in the Philippine archipelago: Specificity and adaptability across thermal gradients. Frontiers in Marine Science, 8, 731023. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2021.731023
Voolstra, C. R., & Ziegler, M. (2020). Adapting with microbial help: Microbiome flexibility facilitates rapid responses to environmental change in reef-building corals. BioEssays, 42(7), 2000018. https://doi.org/10.1002/bies.202000018
Wickstead, J. H. (1965). An introduction to the study of tropical plankton. Hutchinson Tropical Monographs.
Xu, H., Feng, B., Xie, M., Ren, Y., Xia, J., Zhang, Y., & Li, X. (2020). Physiological characteristics and environment adaptability of reef-building corals at the Wuzhizhou Island of South China Sea. Frontiers in Physiology, 11, 390. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2020.00390
Zhao, H., Zhang, J., Yang, H., Li, Y., Liu, X., Liu, Y., & Li, X. (2024). Coral reefs at Qiziwan National Marine Park in 2023: Spatial variability and their relationship with environmental factors. Frontiers in Marine Science, 11, 1407803. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2024.1407803
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Nanda Rizky Anugerah, Riris Aryawati, Isnaini Isnaini, Tengku Zia Ulqodry, Muhammad Hendri, Yulianto Suteja
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Jurnal Biologi Tropis is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
The copyright of the received article shall be assigned to the author as the owner of the paper. The intended copyright includes the right to publish the article in various forms (including reprints). The journal maintains the publishing rights to the published articles.
Authors are permitted to disseminate published articles by sharing the link/DOI of the article at the journal. Authors are allowed to use their articles for any legal purposes deemed necessary without written permission from the journal with an acknowledgment of initial publication to this journal.
